The Opium Wars were caused by conflicting belief systems: (a) Britain was action driven and believed that free trade created a richer, better world; (b) China valued reason and didn't see benefits in trade. The Qing believed that merchants were limited and lowly.
The British had already fought an ideological war against the radical beliefs of Jacobin France. The British war in China was another ideological war stemming from their belief in free trade.
The Enlightenment gave the British people four key beliefs. The first was that God helped those who helped themselves. Second was that social improvement could come from both religious conversion and secular programs in education, science, legislation, and commerce. Third was that enlightened nations had a duty to spread these ideas to nations such as China who remained "backward" and unmodern. Fourth was that war might be necessary to effect progress—a belief strengthened by events during the Napoleonic War.
British decision-makers lacked unbiased knowledge of China. Therefore, the British pursued their own trade interests and ignored the legal measures China took to stop opium trade and use. The Chinese had a long history of drug control. Opium had been banned for a long time in China, though imports had never stopped.
Private merchants ignored Chinese laws and imported Opium, and the early 1800s saw a dramatic rise in the amount of Opium imported to China. Evidence about the impact of Opium was given to the Emperor. It was based on empirical research. In response, Lin Tse-hsu (1785-1850), governor-general of Hunan and Hupeh, ordered a massive clean-up operation. Lin had a long history of fighting opium.
Drug addiction was weakening Chinese domestic industries, opening the way for more foreign imports. At the same time Western powers led by Britain were pushing for an open door for trade. Thus opium imports disrupted the Chinese balance of trade and currency, especially because traders insisted on being paid in silver.
Commissioner Lin arrived in Canton and forced Hong merchants to sign a bond agreeing not to deal in opium. Following the exit of the East India Company from Chinese trade, British interests were represented by a government official, Captain Elliot. Because of his government status, disagreements could more readily escalate into armed conflict—as they did. Lin forced Elliot to hand over the Canton Opium chests, which Lin destroyed. Lin wrote to Queen Victoria explaining China's strong moral and practical objections to the opium trade. However, there is no record of Lin's letter ever reaching Victoria or her officials. Tensions increased following the murder of a Chinese villager by British and foreign sailors. Lin's second letter to Queen Victoria regarding the evils of opium was never received. However, there is no record of Lin's letter ever reaching Victoria or her officials.
When Lin banned all trade with Britain, Britain overwhelmed China in the First Opium War, which was ended by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. This victory (1) showed China's need for reform and technical development, and it (2) reinforced Britain's belief that China should be opened for its own good.
The United States enacted a treaty opening the door to American merchants while taking a strong anti-opium line. Ten years later America's opened Japan in a drug-free manner. Europe then had to follow America's lead.
China's opium problem was largely ignored in British government circles, although opium usage and its perils had been in the news for some time. Soon, however, Lord Ashley led British and American evangelical Protestants in starting an anti-opium crusades.
The Second Opium War in 1956 and the Chefoo Convention in 1876 further expanded British territory and opened more of China to foreign trade, including opium. The opium trade was curtailed in stages between 1902 and 1929, with continuing support by Confucian scholar-officials
It is necessary to recognize China's perspective on opium and not rely overly on Western historical sources, such as Palmerston's record of events. For example, we must recognize that the point of the free-trade movement was to preserve China's territorial integrity
Lord Salisbury laid the foundations for Anglo-Chinese friendship and preserved an open-door policy for British trade. Thanks to this open door policy, when Republicans took control in 1912, they inherited an empire that was intact with the framework of a modern state. But even when China joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, the triumph of free trade was tainted because China was still crushing freedom.